The following is part 5 of a 10 part brief outline of the history of ancient Thessaly highlighting the famous Thessalian cavalry—and Greek cavalry in general—up to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE. If you encounter a word with which you are unfamiliar, be sure to check the ‘Glossary of Names and Terms’ (see the link on the right under Reference Aids).
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| Ancient Thessaly |
Thessaly During the Struggle for Leadership between Lakedaimon [Sparta] and Athens
Prior to the Persian War of 480–479 BCE, the Thessalians had been allies of the Athenians and had on at least two occasions fought the Lakedaimonians [Spartans] on behalf of Athens. Following the end of the Persian War, the punitive campaign against the Thessalians led by the Lakedaimonian king Latykhidas and the Lakedaimonian proposals to expel the Thessalians from the Amphiktyony had undoubtedly worsened Thessalian relations with Lakedaimon. On the other hand, the great Athenian leader Themistokles had prevented the Thessalians from being expelled from the Amphiktyony. This politically astute act undoubtedly engendered considerable, favourable sentiments towards Athens on the part of the Thessalians.
In ca. 483 BCE, Themistokles had persuaded the Athenians to use a large surplus from the silver mines at Laureion in southern Attica to construct 200 triremes. Commanding these newly built Athenian ships, Themistokles had been the de factor leader of the allied Greek fleet which defeated the Persian king Xerxes at Salamis in 480 BCE. As mentioned above, in the years immediately following the Persian War, Themistokles had rebuilt the walls of Athens, had fortified the new Athenian port of Peiraieus, and had prevented the Lakedaimonians [Spartans] from expelling the Thessalians, Thebans, Argives, and others from the Amphiktyony. Initially hailed as a hero by the Lakedaimonians, these actions and others made Themistokles very unpopular amongst the Lakedaimonians. In addition, the fact that Themistokles was a stauch democrat made him philosophically unpalatable to the pro-oligarchical Lakedaimonians [Spartans]. His political rivals in Athens had often attempted to have Themistokles ostracized as evidenced by the ostrakon below from the year ca. 482 BCE. However, Themistokles was a master politician without equal and managed to avoid ostracism for nearly two decades. Nevertheless, his luck finally ran out in ca. 471 BCE and Themistokles—the principal architect of Athens’ rise to pre-eminence—was ostracized by the Athenians. [1]
While in exile in Argos, Themistokles was supposedly approached by the once great Lakedaimonian regent Pausanias, who attempted—or so the story goes—to involve him with his treasonous dealings with the Persians. According to this questionable tale, Pausanias was rebuffed by Themistokles, who inexplicably failed to report Pausanias’ schemes to any authorities. Not long afterwards in ca. 471/470 BCE, Pausanias feared the evidence that the Lakedaimonian ephors had collected against him and, noticing the approach of several ephors, he ran into the temple of Khalkioikos (“She of the Brazen House”, i.e. Athena) for sanctuary. The Lakedaimonians prevented food from being brought into the temple and, moments before Pausanias died of starvation, he was removed by the ephors so that he would not die in the temple. Unfortunately, what really happened in Lakedaimon [Sparta] is always questionable due to Sparta’s secretive, Orwellian society. Claiming to have evidence that connected Themistokles with the treason of Pausanias, the Lakedaimonians and Themistokles’ political enemies in Athens sought to arrest Themistokles and put him on trial. After a series of adventures, Themistokles eventually fled to Asia in ca. 470 BCE and ironically sought and was granted refuge with his old adversary, the Persian king Xerxes I (reigned 486–465 BCE). [2]
In ca. 468/467 BCE, a great Persian fleet and army were being assembled to attack the Greeks. The Athenian general Kimon destroyed the Persian fleet and on the same day defeated the Persian army on the Eurymedon River near Aspendos in Pamphylia. This event doesn't have any direct, known association with the Thessalians. Nonetheless, it deserves mention as it was the greatest Greek victory against the Persians in the nearly 150 years following the battle of Plataia in 479 BCE up to the victories of Alexander the Great at Issos in 333 BCE and at Gaugamela in 331 BCE.
Shortly after ca. 464 BCE, the Athenians allied with the Thessalians as well as with Argos, the long-time Peloponnesian rival of Lakedaimon [Sparta]. Incidentally, years earlier the far-sighted Themistokles had cultivated the friendship of both of these states. The Athenians were indignant with the Lakedaimonians on several accounts, but most especially because an Athenian army under the command of Kimon had been unceremoniously dismissed from the drawn out Lakedaimonian siege of the rebel Messenians on Mount Ithome. The Lakedaimonians were paranoid that the Athenian democrats might be sympathetic to the Messenian Helots. Consequently, the Athenians—alone of all of the Lakedaimonian allies—were sent home. It is especially ironic that Kimon was the Athenian general who was dismissed as the aristocratic Kimon was notoriously pro-Lakedaimonian. Kimon even named one of his sons Lakedaimonios. Another son was named Thessalos, which indicates an otherwise unknown close association with Thessaly on the part of Kimon. A few years later in ca. 461 BCE, Kimon was ostracized by the now strongly anti-Lakedaimonian Athenians. (Thoukydides. 1.102; Plutarch. Kimon. 16–17.2)
While residing at Magnesia on the Meander, Themistokles was asked by Artaxerxes I (reigned ca. 465/464–424 BCE), the son of Xerxes I, to aid the Persians against the Athenians, who were supporting Persian rebels in Egypt and Cyprus. The occasion may have been the revolt of the Libyan-Egyptian king Inaros II (reigned ca. 460–454 BCE), who with Athenian help defeated Achaimenes, the Persian satrap of Egypt, in ca. 460 BCE. Themistokles is said to have committed suicide in ca. 459 BCE rather than betray Athens or his Persian benefactor. (Thoukydides. 1.138; Plutarch. Themistokles. 27; Diodoros. 11.58; Cornelius Nepos. Themistokles. 10)
Regrettably, the Thessalians are rarely mentioned in the wars that followed the Lakedaimonian–Athenian split that resulted from the Mount Ithome affair, so I will not summarize the major actions of the subsequent conflicts nor of the Peloponnesian Wars (ca. 431–404 BCE). Instead, I will only describe the few events that directly involved the Thessalians and as well I will briefly mention the ultimate conclusion of these wars.
In the first, major outbreak of open warfare between the the two former allies, the Lakedaimonians [Spartans] commanded by Nikomedes, the son of Kleombrotos, defeated the Athenians at the battle of Tanagra in eastern Boiotia in ca. 457 BCE. Nikomedes held the command on behalf of his nephew, the young king Pleistoanax (reigned ca. 458–408/407 BCE), the son of the former regent Pausanias. The Athenian allies in the battle included Thessalian cavalry, who deserted to the Lakedaimonians during the battle. According to to Thoukydides—who was a contemporary Athenian—the Lakedaimonians prevailed over the Athenians though there was great slaughter on both sides. Plutarch also wrote that the Athenians were defeated at Tanagra in a great battle. (Thoukydides. 1.107–108.1; Plutarch. Kimon. 17.3–6)
Diodoros gave a somewhat different account of the battle of Tanagra. He called Nikomedes the son of Kleomenes and referred to him as the epitropos (guardian) of king Pleistoanax, who was still a child. Diodoros also reported that the battle consisted of two engagements. During the first engagement, the Thessalians deserted to the Lakedaimonians [Spartans] and, after “not a few” fell on both sides, night put an end to the fighting. After the first engagement, the Thessalians took their evening meal and then attacked the Athenian sutlers, who were bringing supplies from Attica. Not knowing that the Thessalians had switched sides, many of the sutlers were slain. Learning of the attack of the Thessalians, the Athenians came up in haste from their camp and routed the Thessalians making a great slaughter of them. The Lakedaimonians then came to the aid of the Thessalians with their forces in battle order. Everyone from both camps engaged in a pitched battle and such was their rivalry that many were slain on both sides. However, night put a stop to the fighting which ended with the victory in doubt. (Diodoros. 11.79–80)
In a very brief notice, Pausanias the periēgētēs concurred with Diodoros that there were two engagements at Tanagra, but he otherwise gave his own unique account of the battle. On the first day, the Argives—who were Athenian allies—had the advantage, but night came on and took away their certainity of victory. On the following day, the Lakedaimonians prevailed when the Thessalians deserted from the Athenians. (Pausanias. 1.29.9)
Incidentally, the great Athenian general Kimon had attempted to join the Athenian army prior to the battle at Tanagra, but had been rebuffed. Nonetheless, following the Athenian defeat, Kimon was recalled from exile. A few years later Kimon led an Athenian expedition against the Persians in Cyprus where he died of illness in ca. 451 BCE. (Plutarch. Kimon. 17–19; Thoukydides. 1.112)
In ca. 454 BCE or thereabouts, the Athenians attempted to restore the Thessalian exile Orestes, the son of Ekhekratidas. Orestes’ father was referred to as the basileus of the Thessalians, which must mean that Ekhekratidas had been the head of the Thessalian koinon. This Athenian expedition into Thessaly may have been connected with the desertion of the Thessalians from the Athenian army at the battle of Tanagra a few years earlier. Be that as it may, the Athenians along with Boiotian and Phokian allies marched against Pharsalos in Thessaly and laid siege to the city. However, the Thessalian cavalry prevented the Athenians from venturing far from their camp. Failing to capture Pharsalos, the Athenians and Orestes were forced to withdraw. According to Diodoros, the Athenian commander at Pharsalos was Myronides, the victor over the Boiotians at the battle of Oinophyta in ca. 457/456 BCE. (Thoukydides. 1.111.1; Diodoros. 11.81–83).
In ca. 483 BCE, Themistokles had persuaded the Athenians to use a large surplus from the silver mines at Laureion in southern Attica to construct 200 triremes. Commanding these newly built Athenian ships, Themistokles had been the de factor leader of the allied Greek fleet which defeated the Persian king Xerxes at Salamis in 480 BCE. As mentioned above, in the years immediately following the Persian War, Themistokles had rebuilt the walls of Athens, had fortified the new Athenian port of Peiraieus, and had prevented the Lakedaimonians [Spartans] from expelling the Thessalians, Thebans, Argives, and others from the Amphiktyony. Initially hailed as a hero by the Lakedaimonians, these actions and others made Themistokles very unpopular amongst the Lakedaimonians. In addition, the fact that Themistokles was a stauch democrat made him philosophically unpalatable to the pro-oligarchical Lakedaimonians [Spartans]. His political rivals in Athens had often attempted to have Themistokles ostracized as evidenced by the ostrakon below from the year ca. 482 BCE. However, Themistokles was a master politician without equal and managed to avoid ostracism for nearly two decades. Nevertheless, his luck finally ran out in ca. 471 BCE and Themistokles—the principal architect of Athens’ rise to pre-eminence—was ostracized by the Athenians. [1]
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| Ostrakon from Athens ca. 482 BCE inscribed ‘Themisthokles [son] of Neokles’. (Ancient Agora Museum in Athens) (Image compliments of the Wikimedia Commons) |
While in exile in Argos, Themistokles was supposedly approached by the once great Lakedaimonian regent Pausanias, who attempted—or so the story goes—to involve him with his treasonous dealings with the Persians. According to this questionable tale, Pausanias was rebuffed by Themistokles, who inexplicably failed to report Pausanias’ schemes to any authorities. Not long afterwards in ca. 471/470 BCE, Pausanias feared the evidence that the Lakedaimonian ephors had collected against him and, noticing the approach of several ephors, he ran into the temple of Khalkioikos (“She of the Brazen House”, i.e. Athena) for sanctuary. The Lakedaimonians prevented food from being brought into the temple and, moments before Pausanias died of starvation, he was removed by the ephors so that he would not die in the temple. Unfortunately, what really happened in Lakedaimon [Sparta] is always questionable due to Sparta’s secretive, Orwellian society. Claiming to have evidence that connected Themistokles with the treason of Pausanias, the Lakedaimonians and Themistokles’ political enemies in Athens sought to arrest Themistokles and put him on trial. After a series of adventures, Themistokles eventually fled to Asia in ca. 470 BCE and ironically sought and was granted refuge with his old adversary, the Persian king Xerxes I (reigned 486–465 BCE). [2]
In ca. 468/467 BCE, a great Persian fleet and army were being assembled to attack the Greeks. The Athenian general Kimon destroyed the Persian fleet and on the same day defeated the Persian army on the Eurymedon River near Aspendos in Pamphylia. This event doesn't have any direct, known association with the Thessalians. Nonetheless, it deserves mention as it was the greatest Greek victory against the Persians in the nearly 150 years following the battle of Plataia in 479 BCE up to the victories of Alexander the Great at Issos in 333 BCE and at Gaugamela in 331 BCE.
Shortly after ca. 464 BCE, the Athenians allied with the Thessalians as well as with Argos, the long-time Peloponnesian rival of Lakedaimon [Sparta]. Incidentally, years earlier the far-sighted Themistokles had cultivated the friendship of both of these states. The Athenians were indignant with the Lakedaimonians on several accounts, but most especially because an Athenian army under the command of Kimon had been unceremoniously dismissed from the drawn out Lakedaimonian siege of the rebel Messenians on Mount Ithome. The Lakedaimonians were paranoid that the Athenian democrats might be sympathetic to the Messenian Helots. Consequently, the Athenians—alone of all of the Lakedaimonian allies—were sent home. It is especially ironic that Kimon was the Athenian general who was dismissed as the aristocratic Kimon was notoriously pro-Lakedaimonian. Kimon even named one of his sons Lakedaimonios. Another son was named Thessalos, which indicates an otherwise unknown close association with Thessaly on the part of Kimon. A few years later in ca. 461 BCE, Kimon was ostracized by the now strongly anti-Lakedaimonian Athenians. (Thoukydides. 1.102; Plutarch. Kimon. 16–17.2)
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| Ostrakon from Athens ca. 461 BCE inscribed ‘Kimon [son] of Miltiades’. (Ancient Agora Museum in Athens) (Image compliments of the Wikimedia Commons) |
While residing at Magnesia on the Meander, Themistokles was asked by Artaxerxes I (reigned ca. 465/464–424 BCE), the son of Xerxes I, to aid the Persians against the Athenians, who were supporting Persian rebels in Egypt and Cyprus. The occasion may have been the revolt of the Libyan-Egyptian king Inaros II (reigned ca. 460–454 BCE), who with Athenian help defeated Achaimenes, the Persian satrap of Egypt, in ca. 460 BCE. Themistokles is said to have committed suicide in ca. 459 BCE rather than betray Athens or his Persian benefactor. (Thoukydides. 1.138; Plutarch. Themistokles. 27; Diodoros. 11.58; Cornelius Nepos. Themistokles. 10)
Regrettably, the Thessalians are rarely mentioned in the wars that followed the Lakedaimonian–Athenian split that resulted from the Mount Ithome affair, so I will not summarize the major actions of the subsequent conflicts nor of the Peloponnesian Wars (ca. 431–404 BCE). Instead, I will only describe the few events that directly involved the Thessalians and as well I will briefly mention the ultimate conclusion of these wars.
The Battle of Tanagra (ca. 457 BCE)
In the first, major outbreak of open warfare between the the two former allies, the Lakedaimonians [Spartans] commanded by Nikomedes, the son of Kleombrotos, defeated the Athenians at the battle of Tanagra in eastern Boiotia in ca. 457 BCE. Nikomedes held the command on behalf of his nephew, the young king Pleistoanax (reigned ca. 458–408/407 BCE), the son of the former regent Pausanias. The Athenian allies in the battle included Thessalian cavalry, who deserted to the Lakedaimonians during the battle. According to to Thoukydides—who was a contemporary Athenian—the Lakedaimonians prevailed over the Athenians though there was great slaughter on both sides. Plutarch also wrote that the Athenians were defeated at Tanagra in a great battle. (Thoukydides. 1.107–108.1; Plutarch. Kimon. 17.3–6)
Diodoros gave a somewhat different account of the battle of Tanagra. He called Nikomedes the son of Kleomenes and referred to him as the epitropos (guardian) of king Pleistoanax, who was still a child. Diodoros also reported that the battle consisted of two engagements. During the first engagement, the Thessalians deserted to the Lakedaimonians [Spartans] and, after “not a few” fell on both sides, night put an end to the fighting. After the first engagement, the Thessalians took their evening meal and then attacked the Athenian sutlers, who were bringing supplies from Attica. Not knowing that the Thessalians had switched sides, many of the sutlers were slain. Learning of the attack of the Thessalians, the Athenians came up in haste from their camp and routed the Thessalians making a great slaughter of them. The Lakedaimonians then came to the aid of the Thessalians with their forces in battle order. Everyone from both camps engaged in a pitched battle and such was their rivalry that many were slain on both sides. However, night put a stop to the fighting which ended with the victory in doubt. (Diodoros. 11.79–80)
In a very brief notice, Pausanias the periēgētēs concurred with Diodoros that there were two engagements at Tanagra, but he otherwise gave his own unique account of the battle. On the first day, the Argives—who were Athenian allies—had the advantage, but night came on and took away their certainity of victory. On the following day, the Lakedaimonians prevailed when the Thessalians deserted from the Athenians. (Pausanias. 1.29.9)
Incidentally, the great Athenian general Kimon had attempted to join the Athenian army prior to the battle at Tanagra, but had been rebuffed. Nonetheless, following the Athenian defeat, Kimon was recalled from exile. A few years later Kimon led an Athenian expedition against the Persians in Cyprus where he died of illness in ca. 451 BCE. (Plutarch. Kimon. 17–19; Thoukydides. 1.112)
The Athenian Siege of Pharsalos (ca. 454 BCE)
In ca. 454 BCE or thereabouts, the Athenians attempted to restore the Thessalian exile Orestes, the son of Ekhekratidas. Orestes’ father was referred to as the basileus of the Thessalians, which must mean that Ekhekratidas had been the head of the Thessalian koinon. This Athenian expedition into Thessaly may have been connected with the desertion of the Thessalians from the Athenian army at the battle of Tanagra a few years earlier. Be that as it may, the Athenians along with Boiotian and Phokian allies marched against Pharsalos in Thessaly and laid siege to the city. However, the Thessalian cavalry prevented the Athenians from venturing far from their camp. Failing to capture Pharsalos, the Athenians and Orestes were forced to withdraw. According to Diodoros, the Athenian commander at Pharsalos was Myronides, the victor over the Boiotians at the battle of Oinophyta in ca. 457/456 BCE. (Thoukydides. 1.111.1; Diodoros. 11.81–83).
The Peloponnesian Wars (ca. 431–404 BCE)
Despite the Orestes affair two decades earlier, the Thessalians and Athenians were able to patch up their alliance as the Thessalians were evidently loyal allies of Athens throughout the so-called Peloponnesian Wars that were fought between the Athenians and Lakedaimonians.
In ca. 431 BCE, the Lakedaimonian [Spartan] king Arkhidamos II (reigned ca. 469–427/426 BCE)—the grandson and successor of Latykhidas—led the first Lakedaimonian invasion of Attica during the Peloponnesian Wars. Athenian and Thessalian cavalry initially bettered a force of Boiotian cavalry at an Attic locality called Phrygia. When Boiotian hoplites came up to support their cavalry, the Athenians and Thessalians were routed. The Thessalian allies were Larisaians (led by Polymedes and Aristonoos, each from a different faction), Pharsalians (commanded by Menon), Krannonians, Pyrasians, Gyrtonians, and Pheraians. (Thoukydides. 2.22.2–3)
[Herakleia in Trakhinia founded in ca. 426 BCE. (Thoukydides. 3.93.2)]
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| Dichalkon (small bronze coin) of Pelinna, Thessaly. Late 4th to early 3rd Century BCE. Thessalian cavalryman wearing a variation of a Boiotian helmet with a longer front visor and a cloak. He wields a long lance. |
In the summer of 424 BCE, the Lakedaimonian [Spartan] general Brasidas led a small force of 1,700 hoplites to aid the Khalkideans of Thrace and the Makedonian king Perdikkas II (reigned ca. 454–413 BCE)—the son of Alexander I the Philhellene—against the Athenians. At Herakleia in Trakhinia, Brasidas sent a messenger to his friends at Pharsalos asking them to escort his army through Thessaly. Crossing the border into greater Thessaly and continuing his march, Brasidas was joined at Melitaia in the interior of Akhaia Phthiotis by Panairos, Doros, Hippolokhidas, Torylaos, and Strophakos, the proxenos on the behalf of the Khalkideans. Besides these Pharsalians, Brasidas’ escort included other Thessalians including the Larisaian Nikonidas, a friend of Perdikkas. Nevertheless, the greater number of Thessalians were well disposed to the Athenians and, on the Enipeus River, Brasidas was blocked and challenged. Brasidas assured his opponents that he would not proceed without permission, so this impromptu Thessalian force withdrew. Thereupon, the duplicitous Brasidas crossed the river and force marched his small army to Pharsalos where he arrived on the same day that he had left Melitaia. Brasidas then rapidly marched across the Thessalian plains to Phakion (site unknown) and thence into Perrhaibia. Here his Thessalian escort returned home and the Perrhaibians, who were hypēkooi (subjects) of the Thessalians, brought Brasidas and his army down to Dion in the kingdom of Perdikkas. In this manner, Brasidas hurried through Thessaly outstripping anyone who was preparing to stop him! (Thoukydides. 4.78–79)
[Perdikkas persuades Thessalians to block Lakedaimonian relief army to Brasidas. (Thoukydides. 4.132)
[Despite Thessalian protests, the Akhaians and others allied with Lakedaimon in ca. 413/412 BCE. (Thoukydides. 8.3.1)]
In 405 BCE, the Lakedaimonian [Spartan] admiral Lysander annihiliated the Athenian fleet at Aigospotamoi in the Hellespont. Early in the following year, Lysander and the Lakedaimonian king Pausanias (reigned ca. 445–426 and ca. 408–395/394 BCE)—the grandson of the regent Pausanias—forced the Athenians to capitulate thereby ending the Peloponnesian Wars, which had lasted nearly thirty years.
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Footnotes:
[1] Building of Athenian fleet: Plutarch. Themistokles. 4.1–2 (one hundred triremes); Thoukydides. 1.14.3.
Themistokles’ command at Salamis: Plutarch. Themistokles. 10–15; Thoukydides. 1.74.1.
Themistokles hailed as a hero: Plutarch. Themistokles. 17; Thoukydides. 1.74.1.
Themistokles’ ostracism: Plutarch. Themistokles. 22.
[2] Pausanias and Themistokles: Thoukydides. 1.128.3–135; Plutarch. Themistokles. 23.
Themistokles’ exile: Thoukydides. 1.135–138; Plutarch.Themistokles. 23–31.
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