Last modified on: 25-April-2016.
FRESH FROM THE PAINTING TABLE
The following is part of the second commission that Four Realms of Chaos in Markham, Ontario painted for me. It consists of 40 legionaries (Latin: legionarii) divided into three units. The miniatures are from the Wargames Foundry. The first two photos show the miniatures prior to Four Realms of Chaos doing the final touch-ups and coating the miniatures with The Army Painter’s Quickshade, a fabulous pigmented varnish.
As I commented in my first post on Roman legionaries, Four Realms of Chaos did a fabulous job. You pay according to the quality of painting that you want. I asked for a good wargaming paint job. Their price was pretty reasonable and I got a very good standard of painting for wargaming miniatures. I am so happy that I have already sent them off a third commission consisting of Elves!
Anyway, I added shields using the wonderful shield transfers from Little Big Men Studios. I also added the pila and added flock to the wargaming bases. The MDF bases are made by Warbases in Fife, Scotland. The movement trays are made by Shogun Miniatures in Sacramento, California. I highly recommend all three companies.
First up are the blue shields:
Next are the red shields:
And last are the yellow shields. The 8 miniatures on the left of the screen were painted by Four Realms of Chaos and the 8 miniatures on the right were painted by me a dozen years ago! I’m not entirely happy with how the shields turned out. They were supposed to be a dull yellow, but they turned out to be bright yellow orange! C'est la vie.
BACKGROUND ON THE LATE ROMAN REPUBLIC (SECOND AND FIRST CENTURIES BCE)
The above models of legionaries of the late Roman Republic are suitable for the armies of many Roman commanders during these turbulent, final years of the Roman Republic. In my first post on Roman legionaries, I briefly summarized the careers of Marius, Sulla, Cinna, Lucullus, Sertorius, Crassus, Pompey the Great, Cicero, Caesar, Lepidus, Antony, Cassius, Brutus, and Octavian (the later Caesar Augustus). These are the most famous leaders of the late Roman Republic.
However, there were many other influential Roman politicians and successful generals during the Second and First Centuries BCE. Despite the great successes of the above leaders, few of them could boast of a long line of famous ancestors or descendants! Certainly none of them came from families as illustrious as the plebeian Caecilii Metelli. During the 100 year period between 150 and 50 BCE, the Caecilii Metelli could boast of 15 individuals who held the office of consul. Many of these also held other important high offices such as censor and pontifex maximus. The following family tree shows all 15 of these individuals.
Incidentally, ancient Roman names consisted of severals parts. First is the praenomen (personal name, e.g. Quintus, Gaius, Publius, etc.) and then the nomen of the gens (family name, e.g. Caecilius, Julius, Cornelius, etc.). Many Romans also had a cognomen (e.g. Metellus, Caesar, Sulla, etc.), which was sometimes a subfamily name as in the case of the Caecilii Metelli. Lastly, some individuals had an additional name called an agnomen (e.g. Numidicus, Pius, Felix, etc.). Some even had more than one agnomen (e.g. Africanus Aemilianus).
The following members of the Caecilii Metelli family are arranged chronologically by the year in which they became consul. I have to confess that I have always had trouble figuring out which Caecilius Metellus was which (especially numbers 13 and 14 below). Hopefully, the following summary will help me and others keep them straight in the future.
N.B. The abbreviation ‘cos.’ is the ancient Latin abbreviation for consul. The consulship years are derived from E. J. Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. London: Thames and Hudson. 1968. If a consul’s agnomen is displayed in parenthesis that indicates that he did not yet possess that agnomen at the time of his consulship. Ancient Roman fasti consulares—which unfortunately only survive as fragments—normally indicated the praenomen of a consul’s father and sometimes that of his grandfather.
1. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus (cos. 143 BCE), son of Quintus (apparently the consul of 206 BCE) – As praetor in 148 BCE, Metellus defeated Andriskos (aka Pseudo-Philip), the pretender to the Makedonian throne and subsequently organized Makedonia into a new Roman province. Metellus then defeated the Akhaian League army at the battle of Skarpheia in Lokris in 146 BCE. However, Metellus was obliged to relinquish command to the consul Lucius Mummius (cos. 146 BCE), who captured Korinth thereby putting an end to the war. Greece was subsequently added to the new Roman province of ‘Macedonia’. Metellus celebrated a triumphus (triumph, a victorious procession through Rome) and was honoured with the agnomen Macedonicus. (Velleius Paterculus. 1.11–12)
According to Appian, a certain Caecilius Metellus campaigned in Spain against the Arevaci, whom Metellus subdued, as well as against the Numantines. The account of Valerius Maximus stated that Quintus Metellus—acting as consul and as proconsul—came close to conquering all of Spain. So, it would seem that Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus campaigned successfully in Spain as consul in 143 and as proconsul in 142 BCE. Both Appian and Valerius Maximus recorded that Metellus was succeeded in his Spanish command by Quintus Pompeius (whom Appian mistakenly called Quintus Pompeius Aulus). The consul of 141 BCE was Quintus Pompeius, the son of Aulus Pompeius. Valerius Maximus wrote that, in anger at being replaced, Metellus sabotaged the effectiveness of the army that he turned over to his enemy Quintus Pompeius. Appian, on the other hand, recorded that Metellus turned over a “most excellently trained” army to Pompeius! Incidentally, the so-called 3rd Celtiberian War (143–133 BCE) dragged on until Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus (cos. 147, 134 BCE) utterly destroyed the Celtiberian stronghold of Numantia in 133 BCE. (Appian. Spanish Wars 13.76; Valerius Maximus. 9.3.7)
As censor in 131 BCE (ironically with Quintus Pompeius as his colleague), Metellus Macedonicus made a famous speech—later read out in its entirety by Augustus to the Senate—proposing that all citizens should be compelled to marry in order to increase the birthrate. Metellus Macedonicus himself had seven children and all four of his sons became consuls. Metellus Macedonicus died during the consulship of his third son in 115 BCE. (Valerius Maximus. 7.1.1; Velleius Paterculus. 1.11; Pliny. Natural History 7.13)
Pliny related the dramatic story that, during his censorship, Metellus Macedonicus had expelled a certain Gaius Atinius Labeo from the Senate. At some unspecified point later when Atinius was serving as a plebeian tribune, Metellus Macedonicus was taken into custody by Atinius at midday on the streets. In doing so, Atinius was taking advantage of the fact that the Forum and Capitol were largely deserted at that time of day and, as a result, he could seize Metellus with little interference or delay. As the person of the plebeian tribune was sacrosanct, the law-abiding Metellus Macedonicus did not resist his detention. He was dragged savagely by a rope around his neck to the Tarpeian Rock from whence criminals were hurled to their deaths. At the last moment, Metellus Macedonicus was rescued by another tribune who arrived in the nick of time to intervene and save his life. Fortunately for Metellus Macedonicus, each plebeian tribune had the power to veto the action of any other tribune. This would not be the last time that a member of the Caecilii Metelli would tangle with a plebeian tribune. (Pliny. Natural History 7.44)
2. Lucius Caecilius Metellus Calvus (cos. 142 BCE), son of Quintus (apparently the consul of 206 BCE) – His agnomen Calvus means bald. Valerius Maximus (8.5.1) wrote that the Metelli brothers Quintus [Macedonicus] and Lucius [Calvus] testified against Quintus Pompeius for alleged misdeeds in Spain. Cicero (For Marcus Fonteius 11) concurred that Lucius and Quintus Metellus were witnesses against Quintus Pompeius. The prosecution was unsuccessful, but this incident hints that Lucius Caecilius Metellus Calvus had apparently served in Spain during his consulship. Frontinus (Stratagems 3.7, 4.1.23) does in fact record a stratagem employed by a certain Lucius Metellus in Hispania Citerior (Nearer/Hither Spain) as well as one by Quintus Metellus Macedonicus in Hispania. It was not unheard of for two or more Roman commanders to have served simultaneously in the same theatre of war.
3. Quintus Caecilius Metellus (Baliaricus) (cos. 123 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, no. 1] – Metellus conquered the Balearic Islands in 123–122 BCE. Metellus celebrated a triumph and was honoured with the agnomen Baliaricus. He was censor in 120 BCE.
4. Lucius Caecilius Metellus (Dalmaticus/Delmaticus) (cos. 119 BCE), son of Lucius [Caecilius Metellus Calvus, no. 2] – Metellus defeated the Dalmatae/Delmatae in Illyria and celebrated a triumph earning the agnomen Dalmaticus/ Delmaticus. According to Appian (Illyrian Wars 2.11), Metellus Dalmaticus waged this unjustified war simply in order to be honoured with a triumph. In addition, Appian claimed that the war didn’t actually involve any fighting! Metellus Dalmaticus was pontifex maximus and was also possibly censor in 115 BCE.
5. Lucius Caecilius Metellus Diadematus (cos. 117 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, no. 1] – According to Plutarch (Coriolanus 11.3), his agnomen Diadematus was derived from the similarity of a diadem (royal headband) with a bandage that he wore for a long time around his forehead. Metellus Diadematus was consul in 117 BCE and censor in 115 BCE.
6. Marcus Caecilius Metellus (cos. 115 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, no. 1] – As proconsul in 114 BCE, Metellus suppressed a revolt on the island of Sardinia. He celebrated a triumph on the same day that his brother Gaius (no. 7) celebrated a triumph over the Thracians.
7. Gaius Caecilius Metellus Caprarius (cos. 113 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, no. 1] – Metellus Caprarius defeated the Thracians in 112–111 BCE and celebrated a triumph on the same day that his brother Marcus (no. 6) celebrated a triumph over the Sardinians. Metellus Caprarius was censor in 102 BCE with his first cousin Metellus Numidicus (no. 8) as his colleague. His agnomen Caprarius means goat herder, but it is unclear why that title was applied to him!
8. Quintus Caecilius Metellus (Numidicus) (cos. 109 BCE), son of Lucius [Caecilius Metellus Calvus, no. 2] – In 110 BCE, Aulus Postumius Albinus Magnus was defeated by the Numidian king Jugurtha and the Roman army was forced to pass under the yoke, a disgraceful ritual of humiliation inflicted on a defeated foe. As consul in 109 BCE, Metellus campaigned against Jugurtha in Numidia narrowly defeating him at the Muthul River. Afterwards Metellus despoiled Numidia and forced Jugurtha to flee from Numidia and to seek aid from the Gaetulians and from Bochhus, the king of Mauretania. His legate Gaius Marius was elected consul for 107 BCE and succeeded to the command in Numidia. Marius won the war when his legate Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix captured Jugurtha in 106 BCE. Nonetheless, Metellus celebrated a triumph for his victories against Jugurtha as he had restored Roman honour in Numidia and he was honoured with the agnomen Numidicus. (Sallust. The Jugurthine War)
Subsequently, Metellus Numidicus was hostile to Gaius Marius (cos. 107, 104, 103, 102, 101, 100, 86 BCE) and his supporters Lucius Appuleius Saturninus and Gaius Servilius Glaucia. As censor in 102 BCE, Metellus Numidicus attempted to expel Saturninus and Glaucia from the Senate. However, he was blocked by his first cousin Metellus Caprarius (no. 7), who was his colleague as censor. During the sixth consulship of Marius in 100 BCE, Marius tricked Metellus Numidicus into joining Marius in declaring in the Senate that he would not swear an oath to support an agrarian law proposed by Saturninus. However, when the law was subsequently passed by the comitia (assembly), Marius shamefully reneged on his vow. Metellus Numidicus, on the other hand, honourably refused to break his promise and was consequently exiled (Plutarch. Gaius Marius 28–31). Following the deaths of both Saturninus and Glaucia at the hands of a mob, Metellus Numidicus was recalled in 99/98 BCE due to the efforts of his son and others.
Metellus Numidicus was held in high regard for his integrity by the Optimates (the generally conservative upper class). (Sallust. The Jugurthine War 43)
9. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos (cos. 98 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Baliaricus, no. 3] – In 98 BCE, Metellus Nepos and his co-consul Titus Didius passed a law called the Lex Caecilia Didia, which forbade including unrelated items in the same bill, an ancient legislative trick that is still commonplace today! His agnomen Nepos (grandson) was apparently due to the fact that he was the eldest grandson of the illustrious Metellus Macedonicus (no. 1).
10. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius (cos. 80 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Numidicus, no. 8] – Metellus received the agnomen Pius (dutiful) for his pietas (familial dutifulness) in persistently lobbying for the return from exile of his father Metellus Numidicus.
In 88 BCE during the Social War, Metellus Pius defeated Quintus Poppaedius Silo, the leader of the rebel Marsi.
The following year, the Sullan consul Gnaeus Octavius (cos. 87 BCE) and Metellus Pius attempted to defend Rome against Gaius Marius and the Marian consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna (cos. 87, 86, 85, 84 BCE). However, the army was unwilling to follow Octavius and as a result Metellus Pius was forced to flee to Africa.
Upon the return of Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (cos. 88, 80 BCE) from the East in 83 BCE, Metellus Pius joined him and together they defeated the Marian consul Gaius Norbanus (cos. 83 BCE) at Canusium in Apulia. Sulla and Metellus Pius then won over the army of the Marian consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiagenes (cos. 83 BCE), who was captured in his tent, near Teanum (in Campania?). The following year, Metellus Pius defeated Norbanus and the Marian consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (cos. 85, 84, 82 BCE) at Faventia in Cisalpine Gaul.
Following the victory of Sulla in this civil war, Metellus Pius was Sulla’s colleague as consul in 80 BCE. Metellus Pius was dispatched to Spain in 79 BCE as proconsul to eliminate the last surviving Marian general, Quintus Sertorius. However, Metellus Pius was unable to do so even when joined in 77 BCE by an additional army led by Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great). After Sertorius was assassinated by his legate Marcus Perperna in 73/72 BCE, Pompey defeated and captured Perperna thus putting an end to this nearly decade long civil war. Upon their return to Rome, Metellus Pius and Pompey jointly triumphed for their Spanish victory.
Metellus Pius was pontifex maximus and, like his father, he was held in high regard for his integrity by the Optimates.
11. Quintus Caecilius Metellus (Creticus) (cos. 69 BCE), son of Gaius [Caecilius Metellus Caprarius, no. 7] – In 70 BCE, the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero prosecuted Gaius Verres for extortion committed while he was praetor of Sicily from 73 to 71 BCE. The Caecilii Metelli are mentioned dozens of times in Cicero’s published speech Against Verres. Cicero claimed that Verres and his supporters hoped to delay the trial until 69 BCE when Verres’ friend Quintus Metellus—the future Metellus Creticus—and the eminent orator Quintus Hortensius Hortalus (Verres’ trial advocate) would be consuls! In addition, Quintus Metellus’ brother Marcus Metellus had been elected praetor for 69 BCE and was assigned by lot to preside over trials for extortion! However, Cicero prosecuted the case so skillfully and speedily that these designs were thwarted. Without even waiting for a verdict, Verres went into voluntary exile.
The following year (69 BCE), Quintus Caecilius Metellus was consul. He subjugated the Kretan pirates and conquered Krete despite interference from Pompey the Great (cos. 70, 55, 52 BCE), who had been given an extraordinary command against the pirates in 67 BCE. Quintus Caecilius Metellus triumphed and was given the agnomen Creticus.
12. Lucius Caecilius Metellus (cos. 68 BCE), son of Gaius [Caecilius Metellus Caprarius, no. 7] – In his speech Against Verres, Cicero frequently mentioned Lucius, the brother of Quintus Metellus [Creticus]. Lucius Metellus was praetor of Sicily in 70 BCE following the ruinous governorship of Verres. Cicero credited Lucius Metellus with improving conditions in Sicily while failing to repudiate Verres.
The following year (69 BCE), Lucius Caecilius Metellus was elected consul for 68 BCE, so obviously the Verres trial did not unduly taint the Caecilii Metelli. However, Lucius Caecilius Metellus died in office in 68 BCE.
13. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer (cos. 60 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Nepos, no. 9] – His agnomen Celer means speedy, which he received for his speedy preparation of the gladiatorial games for his father’s funeral (Plutarch. Coriolanus 11.3 and Romulus 10.2).
Metellus Celer was a legate of his brother-in-law Pompey the Great in 66 BCE and repulsed the attack of the Albanian king Oroeses/Oroizes upon his winter camp in the Caucasus (Cassius Dio. 36.54).
As praetor in 63 BCE, Metellus Celer was given a special command against the renegade Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline) on the motion of the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero (cos. 63 BCE). Metellus Celer blocked Catiline’s withdrawal which led directly to Catiline’s defeat and death.
In 62 BCE, Metellus Celer was sent as governor to Cisalpine Gaul (Cassius Dio. 37.33). According to Pliny (Natural History 2.67), he was governor of Gallia with proconsular imperium. In a letter from Gaul in 62 BCE, Metellus Celer complained to Cicero that Cicero had attacked his brother (Metellus Nepos, no. 14) contributing to his brother’s downfall (Cicero. Letters to Friends 5.1). Metellus Celer informed Cicero that as a result he was in mourning and dishevelled—part of ritual mourning—even though he was in command of a province and an army and was waging a war! In reply, Cicero (Letters to Friends 5.2) defended himself in detail and explained that in his opinion he had not so much attacked Metellus Celer’s brother as defended himself against his brother’s attacks. Cicero, furthermore, reminded Metellus Celer that he had been instrumental in obtaining a province for Metellus Celer and wryly observed that it almost sounded like he was threatening Cicero with his army.
Unlike his brother Metellus Nepos (no. 14), it would seem that Metellus Celer broke with Pompey when Pompey divorced Mucia—apparently their maternal half-sister—in 62 BCE. However, according to Dio Cassius (37.49), Metellus Celer did not break with Pompey until after Pompey helped Metellus Celer to be elected consul for the year 60 BCE. As consul, Metellus Celer championed the Optimates and thwarted the legislative plans of Pompey to reward his veterans. The plebeian tribune Lucius Flavius had Metellus Celer imprisoned for his opposition, but even then the consul showed no signs of capitulating. This affair so embarrassed Pompey that he directed the tribune to release Metellus Celer (Cassius Dio. 37.49).
In April of 59 BCE, Metellus Celer died so unexpectedly that it was suspected that he had been poisoned by his wife and first cousin Clodia.
* The following year (59 BCE), Metellus Celer also opposed the Populares agenda of the new consul Gaius Julius Caesar (cos. 59, 48, 46, 45, 44 BCE), whose daughter Julia married Pompey in 59 BCE. [??? check my source - was Metellus Celer governor of Cisalpine Gaul when he died?]
14. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos (cos. 57 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Nepos, no. 9] – Metellus Nepos was a legate of his brother-in-law Pompey the Great in 67 BCE in the war against the pirates being given command over Lycia, Pamphylia, Cyprus, and Phoenicia (Appian. Mithridatic Wars 14.95).
In 63 BCE, Metellus Nepos returned to Rome and was elected plebeian tribune for December 63 to December 62 BCE. Metellus Nepos vehemently opposed the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero (cos. 63 BCE) for executing the Catilinian conspirators. Cicero (Letters to Friends 5.2.6) complained that Metellus Nepos “tried to plot and plan his entire tribunate around my destruction”! However, when Metellus Nepos proposed a motion that Pompey be recalled to Rome to bring order, two other plebeian tribunes—Marcus Porcius Cato and Quintus Minucius—vetoed the motion. Following a violent clash between their followers, the Senate directed the consuls to restore order. Fearing for his life, Metellus Nepos withdrew from Rome and joined Pompey even though as plebeian tribune he was not allowed to leave the capital (Cassius Dio. 37.43).
In any event, Metellus Nepos was subsequently elected praetor for 60 BCE, the same year that his brother Metellus Celer was consul.
Incidentally, two years later in 58 BCE, Cicero was exiled for the execution of the Catilinian conspirators. This was accomplished by the machinations of the plebeian tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher, a cousin of Metellus Nepos.
As consul in 57 BCE, Metellus Nepos proposed Pompey’s cura annonae (which gave Pompey control of Rome’s grain supply) and acquiesced to Cicero’s return from exile.
On his way to assume his governorship of Hispania Citerior (Nearer/Hither Spain) as proconsul in 56 BCE, Metellus Nepos attended the Luca conference hosted by the triumvirs Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar.
Interestingly, a letter from Quintus Metellus Nepos while in Spain survives in the works of Cicero (Letters to Friends 5.3). In the letter, Metellus Nepos thanked Cicero for defending him against attacks by an unnamed individual in Rome and asked for his help with his provincial accounts! Obviously, the two old adversaries had reconciled.
After the expiration of his command in Hispania Citerior, Metellus Nepos is never heard of again! He apparently died shortly after his return from Spain in 55 BCE.
Metellus Nepos’ politics are curious as the Caecilli Metelli were generally supporters of the Optimates. However, Metellus Nepos had opposed Cicero, who at the time was seen as championing the Optimates. In addition, Metellus Nepos supported Pompey and Caesar when they were championing the Populares. Perhaps the Caecilli Metelli were covering their bets by having one brother (Metellus Celer, no. 13) support the Optimates while the other brother (Metellus Nepos) supported the Populares. On the other hand, it may simply have been the case that Metellus Nepos remained a loyal adherent of Pompey.
15. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio (cos. 52 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Pius, no. 10] – He was born Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica, the son of Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica (praetor in 93 BCE). He was adopted by Metellus Pius perhaps posthumously in his will. He was henceforth known as Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio. However, in his commentaries, Julius Caesar simply referred to him as Scipio.
In 53 BCE, Metellus Scipio ran for consul, but the elections for 52 BCE were invalidated due to widespread gang warfare and bribery. As a result, Pompey the Great (cos. 70, 55, 52 BCE) was declared sole consul in 52 BCE. Pompey’s beloved wife Julia had died in 54 BCE and Pompey subsequently married Cornelia, the daughter of Metellus Scipio. Pompey arranged for the dismissal of the charge of election bribery against his new father-in-law and in July 52 BCE Pompey appointed Metellus Scipio his co-consul for the remaining half of the year.
Pompey was now seen as championing the Senate or the Optimates against Caesar. Metellus Scipio subsequently proposed the motion in the Senate to outlaw Caesar in January 49 BCE.
Metellus Scipio was assigned the governorship of Syria during the ensuing civil war and brought two legions to join Pompey in Greece. At the battle of Pharsalos in 48 BCE, Metellus Scipio commanded the centre of Pompey’s army. Following this defeat, Pompey and his devoted wife Cornelia fled to Egypt where Pompey was assassinated.
Metellus Scipio fled to the Roman province of Africa where a number of Pompeian commanders had gathered. As a former consul, he outranked the other commanders and was addressed as imperator, a title given to a victorous general or commander-in-chief (Bellum Africum 4, 45). Metellus Scipio along with Titus Labienus (formerly Caesar’s top legate in Gaul), Marcus Petreius (the victor over Catiline in 62 BCE and subsequently one of Pompey’s top legates), as well as the Numidian king Juba I were defeated by Caesar at Thapsus in 46 BCE. This defeat resulted in the collapse of the Pompeian forces in north Africa and the suicides of Petreius, Juba, and Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis (aka Cato the Younger).
Many other Pompeians—including Metellus Scipio—attempted to flee to Spain. However, the renegade adventurer Publius Sittius sunk the small flotilla of Metellus Scipio near Hippo Regius in Numidia and Metellus Scipio was drowned (Bellum Africum 96). According to Livy (Periochae 114), when the ship of Metellus Scipio was encircled, “he employed words suitable to his honourable death”. His enemies asked the imperator—more than likely used in mockery by the freebooters—to dixit (speak or plead for his life). Accepting the fact that he was about to drown, Metellus Scipio stoically replied “The imperator is bene (well, fine)”!
Be different! Instead of wargaming as Pompey the Great or Julius Caesar, why not wargame as one of the Caecilii Metelli?
FRESH FROM THE PAINTING TABLE
The following is part of the second commission that Four Realms of Chaos in Markham, Ontario painted for me. It consists of 40 legionaries (Latin: legionarii) divided into three units. The miniatures are from the Wargames Foundry. The first two photos show the miniatures prior to Four Realms of Chaos doing the final touch-ups and coating the miniatures with The Army Painter’s Quickshade, a fabulous pigmented varnish.
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| All 40 miniatures. |
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| Close-up of three of the 40 miniatures. |
As I commented in my first post on Roman legionaries, Four Realms of Chaos did a fabulous job. You pay according to the quality of painting that you want. I asked for a good wargaming paint job. Their price was pretty reasonable and I got a very good standard of painting for wargaming miniatures. I am so happy that I have already sent them off a third commission consisting of Elves!
Anyway, I added shields using the wonderful shield transfers from Little Big Men Studios. I also added the pila and added flock to the wargaming bases. The MDF bases are made by Warbases in Fife, Scotland. The movement trays are made by Shogun Miniatures in Sacramento, California. I highly recommend all three companies.
First up are the blue shields:
Next are the red shields:
And last are the yellow shields. The 8 miniatures on the left of the screen were painted by Four Realms of Chaos and the 8 miniatures on the right were painted by me a dozen years ago! I’m not entirely happy with how the shields turned out. They were supposed to be a dull yellow, but they turned out to be bright yellow orange! C'est la vie.
BACKGROUND ON THE LATE ROMAN REPUBLIC (SECOND AND FIRST CENTURIES BCE)
The above models of legionaries of the late Roman Republic are suitable for the armies of many Roman commanders during these turbulent, final years of the Roman Republic. In my first post on Roman legionaries, I briefly summarized the careers of Marius, Sulla, Cinna, Lucullus, Sertorius, Crassus, Pompey the Great, Cicero, Caesar, Lepidus, Antony, Cassius, Brutus, and Octavian (the later Caesar Augustus). These are the most famous leaders of the late Roman Republic.
However, there were many other influential Roman politicians and successful generals during the Second and First Centuries BCE. Despite the great successes of the above leaders, few of them could boast of a long line of famous ancestors or descendants! Certainly none of them came from families as illustrious as the plebeian Caecilii Metelli. During the 100 year period between 150 and 50 BCE, the Caecilii Metelli could boast of 15 individuals who held the office of consul. Many of these also held other important high offices such as censor and pontifex maximus. The following family tree shows all 15 of these individuals.
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| The Caecilii Metelli of the Late Roman Republic. |
Incidentally, ancient Roman names consisted of severals parts. First is the praenomen (personal name, e.g. Quintus, Gaius, Publius, etc.) and then the nomen of the gens (family name, e.g. Caecilius, Julius, Cornelius, etc.). Many Romans also had a cognomen (e.g. Metellus, Caesar, Sulla, etc.), which was sometimes a subfamily name as in the case of the Caecilii Metelli. Lastly, some individuals had an additional name called an agnomen (e.g. Numidicus, Pius, Felix, etc.). Some even had more than one agnomen (e.g. Africanus Aemilianus).
The following members of the Caecilii Metelli family are arranged chronologically by the year in which they became consul. I have to confess that I have always had trouble figuring out which Caecilius Metellus was which (especially numbers 13 and 14 below). Hopefully, the following summary will help me and others keep them straight in the future.
N.B. The abbreviation ‘cos.’ is the ancient Latin abbreviation for consul. The consulship years are derived from E. J. Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. London: Thames and Hudson. 1968. If a consul’s agnomen is displayed in parenthesis that indicates that he did not yet possess that agnomen at the time of his consulship. Ancient Roman fasti consulares—which unfortunately only survive as fragments—normally indicated the praenomen of a consul’s father and sometimes that of his grandfather.
1. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus (cos. 143 BCE), son of Quintus (apparently the consul of 206 BCE) – As praetor in 148 BCE, Metellus defeated Andriskos (aka Pseudo-Philip), the pretender to the Makedonian throne and subsequently organized Makedonia into a new Roman province. Metellus then defeated the Akhaian League army at the battle of Skarpheia in Lokris in 146 BCE. However, Metellus was obliged to relinquish command to the consul Lucius Mummius (cos. 146 BCE), who captured Korinth thereby putting an end to the war. Greece was subsequently added to the new Roman province of ‘Macedonia’. Metellus celebrated a triumphus (triumph, a victorious procession through Rome) and was honoured with the agnomen Macedonicus. (Velleius Paterculus. 1.11–12)
According to Appian, a certain Caecilius Metellus campaigned in Spain against the Arevaci, whom Metellus subdued, as well as against the Numantines. The account of Valerius Maximus stated that Quintus Metellus—acting as consul and as proconsul—came close to conquering all of Spain. So, it would seem that Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus campaigned successfully in Spain as consul in 143 and as proconsul in 142 BCE. Both Appian and Valerius Maximus recorded that Metellus was succeeded in his Spanish command by Quintus Pompeius (whom Appian mistakenly called Quintus Pompeius Aulus). The consul of 141 BCE was Quintus Pompeius, the son of Aulus Pompeius. Valerius Maximus wrote that, in anger at being replaced, Metellus sabotaged the effectiveness of the army that he turned over to his enemy Quintus Pompeius. Appian, on the other hand, recorded that Metellus turned over a “most excellently trained” army to Pompeius! Incidentally, the so-called 3rd Celtiberian War (143–133 BCE) dragged on until Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus (cos. 147, 134 BCE) utterly destroyed the Celtiberian stronghold of Numantia in 133 BCE. (Appian. Spanish Wars 13.76; Valerius Maximus. 9.3.7)
As censor in 131 BCE (ironically with Quintus Pompeius as his colleague), Metellus Macedonicus made a famous speech—later read out in its entirety by Augustus to the Senate—proposing that all citizens should be compelled to marry in order to increase the birthrate. Metellus Macedonicus himself had seven children and all four of his sons became consuls. Metellus Macedonicus died during the consulship of his third son in 115 BCE. (Valerius Maximus. 7.1.1; Velleius Paterculus. 1.11; Pliny. Natural History 7.13)
Pliny related the dramatic story that, during his censorship, Metellus Macedonicus had expelled a certain Gaius Atinius Labeo from the Senate. At some unspecified point later when Atinius was serving as a plebeian tribune, Metellus Macedonicus was taken into custody by Atinius at midday on the streets. In doing so, Atinius was taking advantage of the fact that the Forum and Capitol were largely deserted at that time of day and, as a result, he could seize Metellus with little interference or delay. As the person of the plebeian tribune was sacrosanct, the law-abiding Metellus Macedonicus did not resist his detention. He was dragged savagely by a rope around his neck to the Tarpeian Rock from whence criminals were hurled to their deaths. At the last moment, Metellus Macedonicus was rescued by another tribune who arrived in the nick of time to intervene and save his life. Fortunately for Metellus Macedonicus, each plebeian tribune had the power to veto the action of any other tribune. This would not be the last time that a member of the Caecilii Metelli would tangle with a plebeian tribune. (Pliny. Natural History 7.44)
2. Lucius Caecilius Metellus Calvus (cos. 142 BCE), son of Quintus (apparently the consul of 206 BCE) – His agnomen Calvus means bald. Valerius Maximus (8.5.1) wrote that the Metelli brothers Quintus [Macedonicus] and Lucius [Calvus] testified against Quintus Pompeius for alleged misdeeds in Spain. Cicero (For Marcus Fonteius 11) concurred that Lucius and Quintus Metellus were witnesses against Quintus Pompeius. The prosecution was unsuccessful, but this incident hints that Lucius Caecilius Metellus Calvus had apparently served in Spain during his consulship. Frontinus (Stratagems 3.7, 4.1.23) does in fact record a stratagem employed by a certain Lucius Metellus in Hispania Citerior (Nearer/Hither Spain) as well as one by Quintus Metellus Macedonicus in Hispania. It was not unheard of for two or more Roman commanders to have served simultaneously in the same theatre of war.
3. Quintus Caecilius Metellus (Baliaricus) (cos. 123 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, no. 1] – Metellus conquered the Balearic Islands in 123–122 BCE. Metellus celebrated a triumph and was honoured with the agnomen Baliaricus. He was censor in 120 BCE.
4. Lucius Caecilius Metellus (Dalmaticus/Delmaticus) (cos. 119 BCE), son of Lucius [Caecilius Metellus Calvus, no. 2] – Metellus defeated the Dalmatae/Delmatae in Illyria and celebrated a triumph earning the agnomen Dalmaticus/ Delmaticus. According to Appian (Illyrian Wars 2.11), Metellus Dalmaticus waged this unjustified war simply in order to be honoured with a triumph. In addition, Appian claimed that the war didn’t actually involve any fighting! Metellus Dalmaticus was pontifex maximus and was also possibly censor in 115 BCE.
5. Lucius Caecilius Metellus Diadematus (cos. 117 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, no. 1] – According to Plutarch (Coriolanus 11.3), his agnomen Diadematus was derived from the similarity of a diadem (royal headband) with a bandage that he wore for a long time around his forehead. Metellus Diadematus was consul in 117 BCE and censor in 115 BCE.
6. Marcus Caecilius Metellus (cos. 115 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, no. 1] – As proconsul in 114 BCE, Metellus suppressed a revolt on the island of Sardinia. He celebrated a triumph on the same day that his brother Gaius (no. 7) celebrated a triumph over the Thracians.
7. Gaius Caecilius Metellus Caprarius (cos. 113 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, no. 1] – Metellus Caprarius defeated the Thracians in 112–111 BCE and celebrated a triumph on the same day that his brother Marcus (no. 6) celebrated a triumph over the Sardinians. Metellus Caprarius was censor in 102 BCE with his first cousin Metellus Numidicus (no. 8) as his colleague. His agnomen Caprarius means goat herder, but it is unclear why that title was applied to him!
8. Quintus Caecilius Metellus (Numidicus) (cos. 109 BCE), son of Lucius [Caecilius Metellus Calvus, no. 2] – In 110 BCE, Aulus Postumius Albinus Magnus was defeated by the Numidian king Jugurtha and the Roman army was forced to pass under the yoke, a disgraceful ritual of humiliation inflicted on a defeated foe. As consul in 109 BCE, Metellus campaigned against Jugurtha in Numidia narrowly defeating him at the Muthul River. Afterwards Metellus despoiled Numidia and forced Jugurtha to flee from Numidia and to seek aid from the Gaetulians and from Bochhus, the king of Mauretania. His legate Gaius Marius was elected consul for 107 BCE and succeeded to the command in Numidia. Marius won the war when his legate Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix captured Jugurtha in 106 BCE. Nonetheless, Metellus celebrated a triumph for his victories against Jugurtha as he had restored Roman honour in Numidia and he was honoured with the agnomen Numidicus. (Sallust. The Jugurthine War)
Subsequently, Metellus Numidicus was hostile to Gaius Marius (cos. 107, 104, 103, 102, 101, 100, 86 BCE) and his supporters Lucius Appuleius Saturninus and Gaius Servilius Glaucia. As censor in 102 BCE, Metellus Numidicus attempted to expel Saturninus and Glaucia from the Senate. However, he was blocked by his first cousin Metellus Caprarius (no. 7), who was his colleague as censor. During the sixth consulship of Marius in 100 BCE, Marius tricked Metellus Numidicus into joining Marius in declaring in the Senate that he would not swear an oath to support an agrarian law proposed by Saturninus. However, when the law was subsequently passed by the comitia (assembly), Marius shamefully reneged on his vow. Metellus Numidicus, on the other hand, honourably refused to break his promise and was consequently exiled (Plutarch. Gaius Marius 28–31). Following the deaths of both Saturninus and Glaucia at the hands of a mob, Metellus Numidicus was recalled in 99/98 BCE due to the efforts of his son and others.
Metellus Numidicus was held in high regard for his integrity by the Optimates (the generally conservative upper class). (Sallust. The Jugurthine War 43)
9. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos (cos. 98 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Baliaricus, no. 3] – In 98 BCE, Metellus Nepos and his co-consul Titus Didius passed a law called the Lex Caecilia Didia, which forbade including unrelated items in the same bill, an ancient legislative trick that is still commonplace today! His agnomen Nepos (grandson) was apparently due to the fact that he was the eldest grandson of the illustrious Metellus Macedonicus (no. 1).
10. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius (cos. 80 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Numidicus, no. 8] – Metellus received the agnomen Pius (dutiful) for his pietas (familial dutifulness) in persistently lobbying for the return from exile of his father Metellus Numidicus.
In 88 BCE during the Social War, Metellus Pius defeated Quintus Poppaedius Silo, the leader of the rebel Marsi.
The following year, the Sullan consul Gnaeus Octavius (cos. 87 BCE) and Metellus Pius attempted to defend Rome against Gaius Marius and the Marian consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna (cos. 87, 86, 85, 84 BCE). However, the army was unwilling to follow Octavius and as a result Metellus Pius was forced to flee to Africa.
Upon the return of Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (cos. 88, 80 BCE) from the East in 83 BCE, Metellus Pius joined him and together they defeated the Marian consul Gaius Norbanus (cos. 83 BCE) at Canusium in Apulia. Sulla and Metellus Pius then won over the army of the Marian consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiagenes (cos. 83 BCE), who was captured in his tent, near Teanum (in Campania?). The following year, Metellus Pius defeated Norbanus and the Marian consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo (cos. 85, 84, 82 BCE) at Faventia in Cisalpine Gaul.
Following the victory of Sulla in this civil war, Metellus Pius was Sulla’s colleague as consul in 80 BCE. Metellus Pius was dispatched to Spain in 79 BCE as proconsul to eliminate the last surviving Marian general, Quintus Sertorius. However, Metellus Pius was unable to do so even when joined in 77 BCE by an additional army led by Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great). After Sertorius was assassinated by his legate Marcus Perperna in 73/72 BCE, Pompey defeated and captured Perperna thus putting an end to this nearly decade long civil war. Upon their return to Rome, Metellus Pius and Pompey jointly triumphed for their Spanish victory.
Metellus Pius was pontifex maximus and, like his father, he was held in high regard for his integrity by the Optimates.
11. Quintus Caecilius Metellus (Creticus) (cos. 69 BCE), son of Gaius [Caecilius Metellus Caprarius, no. 7] – In 70 BCE, the Roman orator Marcus Tullius Cicero prosecuted Gaius Verres for extortion committed while he was praetor of Sicily from 73 to 71 BCE. The Caecilii Metelli are mentioned dozens of times in Cicero’s published speech Against Verres. Cicero claimed that Verres and his supporters hoped to delay the trial until 69 BCE when Verres’ friend Quintus Metellus—the future Metellus Creticus—and the eminent orator Quintus Hortensius Hortalus (Verres’ trial advocate) would be consuls! In addition, Quintus Metellus’ brother Marcus Metellus had been elected praetor for 69 BCE and was assigned by lot to preside over trials for extortion! However, Cicero prosecuted the case so skillfully and speedily that these designs were thwarted. Without even waiting for a verdict, Verres went into voluntary exile.
The following year (69 BCE), Quintus Caecilius Metellus was consul. He subjugated the Kretan pirates and conquered Krete despite interference from Pompey the Great (cos. 70, 55, 52 BCE), who had been given an extraordinary command against the pirates in 67 BCE. Quintus Caecilius Metellus triumphed and was given the agnomen Creticus.
12. Lucius Caecilius Metellus (cos. 68 BCE), son of Gaius [Caecilius Metellus Caprarius, no. 7] – In his speech Against Verres, Cicero frequently mentioned Lucius, the brother of Quintus Metellus [Creticus]. Lucius Metellus was praetor of Sicily in 70 BCE following the ruinous governorship of Verres. Cicero credited Lucius Metellus with improving conditions in Sicily while failing to repudiate Verres.
The following year (69 BCE), Lucius Caecilius Metellus was elected consul for 68 BCE, so obviously the Verres trial did not unduly taint the Caecilii Metelli. However, Lucius Caecilius Metellus died in office in 68 BCE.
13. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer (cos. 60 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Nepos, no. 9] – His agnomen Celer means speedy, which he received for his speedy preparation of the gladiatorial games for his father’s funeral (Plutarch. Coriolanus 11.3 and Romulus 10.2).
Metellus Celer was a legate of his brother-in-law Pompey the Great in 66 BCE and repulsed the attack of the Albanian king Oroeses/Oroizes upon his winter camp in the Caucasus (Cassius Dio. 36.54).
As praetor in 63 BCE, Metellus Celer was given a special command against the renegade Lucius Sergius Catilina (Catiline) on the motion of the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero (cos. 63 BCE). Metellus Celer blocked Catiline’s withdrawal which led directly to Catiline’s defeat and death.
In 62 BCE, Metellus Celer was sent as governor to Cisalpine Gaul (Cassius Dio. 37.33). According to Pliny (Natural History 2.67), he was governor of Gallia with proconsular imperium. In a letter from Gaul in 62 BCE, Metellus Celer complained to Cicero that Cicero had attacked his brother (Metellus Nepos, no. 14) contributing to his brother’s downfall (Cicero. Letters to Friends 5.1). Metellus Celer informed Cicero that as a result he was in mourning and dishevelled—part of ritual mourning—even though he was in command of a province and an army and was waging a war! In reply, Cicero (Letters to Friends 5.2) defended himself in detail and explained that in his opinion he had not so much attacked Metellus Celer’s brother as defended himself against his brother’s attacks. Cicero, furthermore, reminded Metellus Celer that he had been instrumental in obtaining a province for Metellus Celer and wryly observed that it almost sounded like he was threatening Cicero with his army.
Unlike his brother Metellus Nepos (no. 14), it would seem that Metellus Celer broke with Pompey when Pompey divorced Mucia—apparently their maternal half-sister—in 62 BCE. However, according to Dio Cassius (37.49), Metellus Celer did not break with Pompey until after Pompey helped Metellus Celer to be elected consul for the year 60 BCE. As consul, Metellus Celer championed the Optimates and thwarted the legislative plans of Pompey to reward his veterans. The plebeian tribune Lucius Flavius had Metellus Celer imprisoned for his opposition, but even then the consul showed no signs of capitulating. This affair so embarrassed Pompey that he directed the tribune to release Metellus Celer (Cassius Dio. 37.49).
In April of 59 BCE, Metellus Celer died so unexpectedly that it was suspected that he had been poisoned by his wife and first cousin Clodia.
* The following year (59 BCE), Metellus Celer also opposed the Populares agenda of the new consul Gaius Julius Caesar (cos. 59, 48, 46, 45, 44 BCE), whose daughter Julia married Pompey in 59 BCE. [??? check my source - was Metellus Celer governor of Cisalpine Gaul when he died?]
14. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos (cos. 57 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Nepos, no. 9] – Metellus Nepos was a legate of his brother-in-law Pompey the Great in 67 BCE in the war against the pirates being given command over Lycia, Pamphylia, Cyprus, and Phoenicia (Appian. Mithridatic Wars 14.95).
In 63 BCE, Metellus Nepos returned to Rome and was elected plebeian tribune for December 63 to December 62 BCE. Metellus Nepos vehemently opposed the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero (cos. 63 BCE) for executing the Catilinian conspirators. Cicero (Letters to Friends 5.2.6) complained that Metellus Nepos “tried to plot and plan his entire tribunate around my destruction”! However, when Metellus Nepos proposed a motion that Pompey be recalled to Rome to bring order, two other plebeian tribunes—Marcus Porcius Cato and Quintus Minucius—vetoed the motion. Following a violent clash between their followers, the Senate directed the consuls to restore order. Fearing for his life, Metellus Nepos withdrew from Rome and joined Pompey even though as plebeian tribune he was not allowed to leave the capital (Cassius Dio. 37.43).
In any event, Metellus Nepos was subsequently elected praetor for 60 BCE, the same year that his brother Metellus Celer was consul.
Incidentally, two years later in 58 BCE, Cicero was exiled for the execution of the Catilinian conspirators. This was accomplished by the machinations of the plebeian tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher, a cousin of Metellus Nepos.
As consul in 57 BCE, Metellus Nepos proposed Pompey’s cura annonae (which gave Pompey control of Rome’s grain supply) and acquiesced to Cicero’s return from exile.
On his way to assume his governorship of Hispania Citerior (Nearer/Hither Spain) as proconsul in 56 BCE, Metellus Nepos attended the Luca conference hosted by the triumvirs Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar.
Interestingly, a letter from Quintus Metellus Nepos while in Spain survives in the works of Cicero (Letters to Friends 5.3). In the letter, Metellus Nepos thanked Cicero for defending him against attacks by an unnamed individual in Rome and asked for his help with his provincial accounts! Obviously, the two old adversaries had reconciled.
After the expiration of his command in Hispania Citerior, Metellus Nepos is never heard of again! He apparently died shortly after his return from Spain in 55 BCE.
Metellus Nepos’ politics are curious as the Caecilli Metelli were generally supporters of the Optimates. However, Metellus Nepos had opposed Cicero, who at the time was seen as championing the Optimates. In addition, Metellus Nepos supported Pompey and Caesar when they were championing the Populares. Perhaps the Caecilli Metelli were covering their bets by having one brother (Metellus Celer, no. 13) support the Optimates while the other brother (Metellus Nepos) supported the Populares. On the other hand, it may simply have been the case that Metellus Nepos remained a loyal adherent of Pompey.
15. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio (cos. 52 BCE), son of Quintus [Caecilius Metellus Pius, no. 10] – He was born Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica, the son of Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica (praetor in 93 BCE). He was adopted by Metellus Pius perhaps posthumously in his will. He was henceforth known as Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio. However, in his commentaries, Julius Caesar simply referred to him as Scipio.
In 53 BCE, Metellus Scipio ran for consul, but the elections for 52 BCE were invalidated due to widespread gang warfare and bribery. As a result, Pompey the Great (cos. 70, 55, 52 BCE) was declared sole consul in 52 BCE. Pompey’s beloved wife Julia had died in 54 BCE and Pompey subsequently married Cornelia, the daughter of Metellus Scipio. Pompey arranged for the dismissal of the charge of election bribery against his new father-in-law and in July 52 BCE Pompey appointed Metellus Scipio his co-consul for the remaining half of the year.
Pompey was now seen as championing the Senate or the Optimates against Caesar. Metellus Scipio subsequently proposed the motion in the Senate to outlaw Caesar in January 49 BCE.
Metellus Scipio was assigned the governorship of Syria during the ensuing civil war and brought two legions to join Pompey in Greece. At the battle of Pharsalos in 48 BCE, Metellus Scipio commanded the centre of Pompey’s army. Following this defeat, Pompey and his devoted wife Cornelia fled to Egypt where Pompey was assassinated.
Metellus Scipio fled to the Roman province of Africa where a number of Pompeian commanders had gathered. As a former consul, he outranked the other commanders and was addressed as imperator, a title given to a victorous general or commander-in-chief (Bellum Africum 4, 45). Metellus Scipio along with Titus Labienus (formerly Caesar’s top legate in Gaul), Marcus Petreius (the victor over Catiline in 62 BCE and subsequently one of Pompey’s top legates), as well as the Numidian king Juba I were defeated by Caesar at Thapsus in 46 BCE. This defeat resulted in the collapse of the Pompeian forces in north Africa and the suicides of Petreius, Juba, and Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis (aka Cato the Younger).
Many other Pompeians—including Metellus Scipio—attempted to flee to Spain. However, the renegade adventurer Publius Sittius sunk the small flotilla of Metellus Scipio near Hippo Regius in Numidia and Metellus Scipio was drowned (Bellum Africum 96). According to Livy (Periochae 114), when the ship of Metellus Scipio was encircled, “he employed words suitable to his honourable death”. His enemies asked the imperator—more than likely used in mockery by the freebooters—to dixit (speak or plead for his life). Accepting the fact that he was about to drown, Metellus Scipio stoically replied “The imperator is bene (well, fine)”!
Be different! Instead of wargaming as Pompey the Great or Julius Caesar, why not wargame as one of the Caecilii Metelli?
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