A History of Thessalian Cavalry Part 8

The following is part 8 of a 10 part brief outline of the history of ancient Thessaly highlighting the famous Thessalian cavalry—and Greek cavalry in general—up to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE. If you encounter a word with which you are unfamiliar, be sure to check the ‘Glossary of Names and Terms’ (see the link on the right under Reference Aids).

Ancient Thessaly

The Tyrannies of Polydoros and Polyphron and the rise of Alexander of Pherai

Jason of Pherai was succeeded by his brothers, Polydoros and Polyphron, as tagoi. While the two were journeying to Larisa, Polydoros died at night in his sleep in ca. 370 BCE. As his death was sudden and without visible cause, his brother Polyphron was believed to have killed him. (Xenophon. Hellēnika. 6.4.33)

Late in 370 BCE, the Thebans led a large force of allies—including Thessalian cavalry and peltasts as well as Malians—and invaded Lakonike, which up to then had been the inviolate homeland of the Lakedaimonians [Spartans]. Xenophon did not mention who sent these Thessalian and Malian troops, but they were likely dispatched by Polydoros and/or Polyphron. In any event, the Thebans and their allies laid waste to the Lakedaimonian countryside. Once again, Xenophon failed to mention the illustrious Theban Boiotarchs—Epameinondas and Pelopidas—who commanded this historic expedition. (Xenophon. Hellēnika. 6.5.23; Plutarch. Pelopidas. 24)

After the death of his brother, Polyphron subsequently ruled as tagos for a year, but his rule was tyrannical. In Pharsalos, he slew Polydamas as well as eight of the best citizens and he drove many from Larisa into exile. In ca. 369 BCE, Polyphron was slain by Alexander of Pherai posing as the avenger of Polydoros and the destroyer of tyranny. Alexander was apparently the son of Polydoros and thus the nephew of Jason and Polyphron. He seized power in ca. 369 BCE and, according to Xenophon, proved to be a harsh tagos to the Thessalians, a difficult enemy to the Thebans and Athenians, and an unjust robber by both land and by sea. (Xenophon. Hellēnika. 6.4.34–35; Diodoros. 15.60.5, 15.61.2) [1]

Silver Drachma of Larisa, Thessaly, ca. 370–350 BCE.
Thessalian heavy cavalryman wearing a Boiotian
helmet and a cuirass with pteryges. He holds a javelin.

In 369 BCE, the Aleuadai of Larisa appealed to Alexander II, the king of Makedonia, for aid in overthrowing the Pheraian tyranny. The Makedonian king and his forces were secretly admitted into Larisa and mastered the city with the exception of the citadel, which must have been held by troops of Alexander of Pherai. Later Alexander II of Makedon took the citadel by siege and also took the important city of Krannon. Contrary to his promises to restore their independence, the Makedonian king put strong garrisons into both cities. Alexander of Pherai was alarmed by these losses and fell back to Pherai. (Diodoros. 15.61.3–5)

The Theban Campaigns Against Alexander of Pherai

After the disappointing intercession of Alexander II of Makedon, the Thessalians asked the Thebans for aid. Pelopidas was sent north with an army to aid the Thessalians. Arriving at Larisa, Pelopidas expelled the Macedonian garrison. Alexander of Pherai afterwards came to Pelopidas to beg for terms, but failed to convince Pelopidas of his trustworthiness. Pelopidas then advanced into Macedonia and settled a civil war between Alexander II and Ptolemy of Aloros. As part of the Theban alliance with Macedonia, Pelopidas took Philip, the young brother of King Alexander II, as a hostage along with thirty others. Pelopidas then returned home to Thebes with the hostages. Young Philip was lodged in the home of Pammenes, a prominent Theban general and diplomat. (Diodoros. 15.67.3–4; Plutarch. Pelopidas. 26)

The following year (368 BCE), Pelopidas and Ismenias were sent to Thessaly as Theban ambassadors to settle disputes with Alexander of Pherai. Upon their arrival, they learned that the Macedonian king Alexander II had been assassinated by his rival Ptolemy of Aloros. Consequently, Pelopidas enlisted mercenaries and marched into Macedonia. Ptolemy bribed Pelopidas’ mercenaries, who thereupon switched sides. Nevertheless, Ptolemy justifiably feared the reputation of Pelopidas and consequently made an alliance with the Thebans and gave his son Philoxenos and fifty others as hostages. Gathering together some of the Thessalians, Pelopidas then journeyed to Pharsalos, where his treacherous mercenaries had left their possessions and families. Just as Pelopidas arrived, Alexander of Pherai appeared at Pharsalos with his army. Showing no fear, Pelopidas and Ismenias went to meet the tyrant, who promptly took them both into custody and seized Pharsalos. (Plutarch. Pelopidas. 27; Diodoros. 15.71.1–2)

In response to this loathsome violation of their ambassadors’ traditional immunity, the Thebans immediately dispatched an army to Thessaly, but the generals proved to be incompetent and withdrew without accomplishing anything noteworthy. Upon their return home, the Thebans fined each of them 10,000 drachmas. This is apparently the campaign in which Epameinondas—who was dutifully serving in the Theban army as a private soldier—stepped forward and rescued the Thebans from danger. (Plutarch. Pelopidas. 28–29.1; Cornelius Nepos. Epaminondas. 7; Diodoros. 15.71.3–7)

In 367 BCE, Epameinondas was sent with a Theban army to Thessaly. All sides expected that Epameinondas would quickly put an end to the tyranny of Alexander of Pherai, who had recently butchered the citizens of Skotoussa in Pelasgiotis and of Meliboia in Magnesia. In both cities, Alexander had gathered the citizens in assembly, surrounded them with his doryphoroi (bodyguards), and slaughtered them all. Fearful of the tyrant’s savagery, Epameinondas did not wish to do anything that would endanger the lives of Pelopidas and Ismenias. As a result, Epameinondas negotiated a truce with Alexander of Pherai and secured the release of both Theban ambassadors. Then, in accordance with the terms of the truce, Epameinondas withdrew from Thessaly. (Plutarch. Pelopidas. 29; Diodoros. 15.75.1–2)

Several years later, when Alexander of Pherai had resumed his reign of tyranny, the Thessalians sent ambassadors to Thebes and once again requested that Pelopidas be sent out to aid the Thessalians. When Pelopidas and his army—including 7,000 citizens—were about to set out, a solar eclipse occurred on July 13, 364 BCE. [2] Seeing that the Thebans were now reluctant to undertake the expedition and that the seers forbade it, Pelopidas subsequently led a meagre volunteer force of only 300 foreign horsemen into Thessaly. At Pharsalos, Pelopidas mustered his Thessalian allies and advanced against the tyrant. For his part, Alexander of Pherai marched against Pelopidas with confidence knowing that his force of hoplites was more than double that of his opponents. (Plutarch. Pelopidas. 31–32.1)

The two armies met a Kynoskephalai (“Dog’s Heads”), which is a range of hills located about halfway between Pharsalos and Pherai. At the commencement of the battle, the Thessalian cavalry routed the cavalry of Alexander of Pherai and drove them from the field. At the same time, the tyrant’s infantry occupied the hills of Kynoskephalai and repulsed the attacks of Pelopidas’ infantry . Seeing this, Pelopidas recalled his cavalry from their pursuit of the enemy. As for Pelopidas himself, he grabbed his shield and ran to join his infantry fighting on the hills. Pelopidas forced his way through the rear ranks of his men to the front and, by his example, inspired them all with great vigour and ardour. The tyrant’s forces managed to repel two or three more assaults, but then gave way. Looking down from the heights, Pelopidas saw the tyrant’s entire army in disarray and spotted Alexander of Pherai himself rallying his mercenaries on the right wing. Overcome by the passions of the moment, Pelopidas charged down the hill ahead of all others towards the tyrant. Alexander of Pherai did not await Pelopidas’ assault, but fell back amongst his doryphoroi (bodyguards). Plunging into the midst of the tyrant’s mercenaries, Pelopidas pushed back and slew some, but was then overwhelmed by their great numbers and fell covered with wounds. Thereupon, the Thessalian infantry rushed down the hills against the enemy and were joined by their cavalry whom Pelopidas had recalled. In their fury at the death of Pelopidas, the Thessalians routed the entire enemy phalanx, pursued them a great distance, and slew more than 3,000 of the tyrant’s forces. (Plutarch. Pelopidas. 32.2–34)

Learning of the death of Pelopidas, the Thebans dispatched a large army consisting of 7,000 hoplites and 700 cavalrymen to Thessaly probably in late 364 BCE. The generals were Malkitas and Diogeiton. They compelled Alexander of Pherai to remove his garrisons from the cities of Thessaly and to set the cities free. Alexander was also forced to liberate the Magnesians and Akhaians of Phthiotis. Finally, Alexander of Pherai was required to become a Theban ally and to do their bidding. (Plutarch. Pelopidas. 35)

Silver stater of Alexander of Pherai, Thessaly, ca. 369-358 BCE.
Thessalian heavy cavalryman wearing a Boiotian helmet and
a metal muscled cuirass with pteryges. A sword hilt is visible
on his left side. He holds a spear underhand.

The End of the Theban Hegemony

In 362 BCE, Epameinondas defeated the Lakedaimonians [Spartans] and Athenians at the battle of Mantinea in eastern Arkadia. Epameinondas was mortally wounded and, after learning of his victory, died on the battlefield. Following the deaths of its two most brilliant commanders, Thebes never again regained a preeminent position of leadership in the Greek world.

Why is the short-lived Theban hegemony important to the topic of the Thessalian cavalry? It is important for two principal reasons.

First of all, the Theban hegemony was a time of accelerating innovation in Greek military affairs. The era of Greek military innovation had begun more or less with the Peloponnesian Wars (ca. 431–404) in the course of which many Greek commanders had begun to use cavalry and light infantry effectively. It is more than likely that the Thebans and Thessalians learned much from each other during the four or more Theban expeditions launched to aid the Thessalians against Alexander of Pherai. Unfortunately, Xenophon is our principle source for this period and he had no interest in highlighting the many accomplishments of the Thebans, whom he held in distain. Consequently, we have no way of knowing what if any innovations in cavalry tactics and equipment resulted from this exchange! Nonetheless, we should be aware of the possibilities.

The second reason for the importance of the Theban hegemony is that in ca. 368 BCE, Pelopidas interceded in a Makedonian civil war and came away with a number of hostages including a teenage Makedonian prince named Philip, son of Amyntas. This teenager spent severals years (ca. 368–365 BCE) as a hostage in Thebes in the house of Pammenes, a distinguished general and politician. Young Philip absorbed everything he could about new military theories and innovations while in Thebes. A few years later in ca. 359 BCE, this boy became king of Macedonia as Philip II, who became famous as the founder of Makedonia as a major power and as the father of Alexander the Great!

Go to Part 9

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Footnotes:

[1] Diodoros (15.60.5) stated that Polydoros may have killed his brother Jason and that it was Polydoros who ruled for a year following Jason. Diodoros (15.61.2) also stated that Polydoros of Pherai was poisoned by his nephew Alexander. Despite his partisanship, Xenophon is a far superior historian compared to Diodoros, so Xenophon’s version of events should be preferred. According to Xenophon (Hellēnika. 6.4.34) , Alexander slew Polyphron posing as the avenger of Polydoros!

[2] http://www.gautschy.ch/~rita/archast/solec/f-400-300.html